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Various letters have been used to write the click consonants of southern Africa. The precursors of the current IPA letters were created by J. G. Krönlein,〔Beach (1938), 288 ''ff''〕 popularized by Karl Richard Lepsius,〔C. R. Lepsius, 1855, ''Das allgemeine linguistische Alphabet: Grundsätze der Übertragung fremder Schriftsysteme und bisher noch ungeschriebener Sprachen in europäische Buchstaben''. Berlin: Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz〕〔C. R. Lepsius, 1863, ''Standand Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform Orthography in European Letters''. 2nd edition, London/Berlin.〕 and continued by Wilhelm Bleek.〔''A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages.'' London, Trübner & Co. (1862: Part I; 1869: Part II)〕 Also influential were Clement Doke〔 Clement M. Doke, 1925, "An outline of the phonetics of the language of the ʗhũ: Bushman of the North-West Kalahari", ''Bantu Studies'' 2:129–166.〕〔Clement M Doke, 1926 (1969), ''The phonetics of the Zulu language''. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand Press〕 and Douglas Beach,〔Douglas Martyn Beach, 1938, ''The phonetics of the Hottentot language''. W. Heffer & Sons. Ltd., London〕 who used a different system that partially paralleled the IPA from 1921 to 1989. Individual languages have had various orthographies, usually based on either the Lepsius alphabet or more strictly on the Latin alphabet. Clicks written with Latin letters such as ''c q x ç'' have case forms; when written with the Lepsius pipe letters ''ǀ ǃ ǁ ǂ'' they do not. ==Multiple systems== By the early 19th century, the otherwise unneeded letters ''c q x'' were used as the basis for writing clicks in Zulu by British and German missions.〔 However, for general linguistics this was confusing, as each of these letters had other uses. There were various ''ad hoc'' attempts to create letters—often iconic symbols—for click consonants, with the most successful being that of Krönlein popularized by Lepsius. Doke later created a different system, based graphically on the IPA letters of 1921 and theoretically on an empirically informed conception of the nature of click consonants. The only other system that has seen wide use is Kirshenbaum, an ASCII substitute for the IPA, which has been used in transcribing Damin. Besides the difference in letter shape (variations on a pipe for Lepsius, modifications of Latin letters for Doke and Beach), there was a conceptual difference: Lepsius used one letter as the base for all click consonants of the same place of articulation (called the 'influx'), and added a second letter or diacritic for the manner of articulation (called the 'efflux'), treating them as two distinct sounds (the click proper and its accompaniment),〔 Lepsius explained his system as follows: 〕 whereas Doke used a separate letter for each tenuis, voiced, and nasal click, treating each as a distinct consonant, and thus following the example of the Latin alphabet, where the voiced and nasal occlusives also treated as distinct consonants (''p b m, t d n, c j ñ, k g ŋ''). Kirshenbaum differs from either in using a generic for all clicks, with a preceding letter to indicate both place and manner. Doke's nasal-click letters were based on the letter , continuing the pattern of the pulmonic nasal consonants . For example, the letter for the dental nasal click is ; the alveolar is similar but with the curl on the left leg, the lateral has a curl on both legs, and the retroflex and palatal are ''ɲ, ŋ'' with a curl on their free leg: 100px. The voiced-click letters are more individuated, a couple were simply inverted versions of the tenuis-click letters. The tenuis–voiced pairs were (the letter had not yet been added to the IPA for the voiced velar fricative), , , similarly and its inverse, and lateral paired with a double loop (an inverted ꔛ): 175px. A proposal to add Doke’s letters to Unicodeis not yet decided finally (as of October 2013, Unicode version 6.3). Beach wrote on Khoekhoe and so had no need for letters for the voiced clicks; he created letters for nasal clicks by adding a curl to the bottom of the tenuis-click letters: double-barred for nasal , stretched for nasal , turned for nasal (though with the curl on the bottom), and something like a topless for nasal : 50px. Doke and Beach both wrote aspirated clicks with an ''h'', , and the (nasalized) glottalized clicks with a glottal stop, .〔Beach also wrote the affricate contour clicks with an ''x'', .〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「click letter」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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